The vascular endothelium releases a variety of vasoactive substances, including the endothelium-derived vasoconstrictor peptide, endothelin (ET) (see, e.g., Vanhoutte et al. (1986) Annual Rev. Physiol. 48: 307-320; Furchgott and Zawadski (1980) Nature 288: 373-376). Endothelin, which was originally identified in the culture supernatant of porcine aortic endothelial cells (see, Yanagisawa et al. (1988) Nature 332: 411-415), is a potent twenty-one amino acid peptide vasoconstrictor. It is the most potent vasopressor known and is produced by numerous cell types, including the cells of the endothelium, trachea, kidney and brain. Endothelin is synthesized as a two hundred and three amino acid precursor preproendothelin that contains a signal sequence which is cleaved by an endogenous protease to produce a thirty-eight (human) or thirty-nine (porcine) amino acid peptide. This intermediate, referred to as big endothelin, is processed in vivo to the mature biologically active form by a putative endothelin-converting enzyme (ECE) that appears to be a metal-dependent neutral protease (see, e.g., Kashiwabara et al. (1989) FEBS Lttrs. 247: 337-340). Cleavage is required for induction of physiological responses (see, e.g., von Geldern et al. (1991) Peptide Res. 4: 32-35). In porcine aortic endothelial cells, the thirty-nine amino acid intermediate, big endothelin, is hydrolyzed at the Trp.sup.21 -Val.sup.22 bond to generate endothelin-1 and a C-terminal fragment. A similar cleavage occurs in human cells from a thirty-eight amino acid intermediate. Three distinct endothelin isopeptides that exhibit potent vasoconstrictor activity have been identified. They are endothelin-1, endothelin-2 and endothelin-3.
The isopeptides are encoded by a family of three genes (see, e.g., Inoue et al. (1989) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86: 2863-2867; see, also Saida et al. (1989)J. Biol. Chem. 264: 14613-14616). The nucleotide sequences of the three human genes are highly conserved within the region encoding the mature 21 amino acid peptides and the C-terminal portions of the peptides are identical. Endothelin-2 is (Trp.sup.6,Leu.sup.7) endothelin-1 and endothelin-3 is (Thr.sup.2,Phe.sup.4,Thr.sup.5,Tyr.sup.6,Lys.sup.7,Tyr.sup.14) endothelin-1. The endothelin peptides exhibit numerous biological activities in vitro and in vivo. Endothelin provokes a strong and sustained vasoconstriction in vivo in rats and in isolated vascular smooth muscle preparations; it also provokes the release of eicosanoids and endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF) from perfused vascular beds. Intravenous administration of endothelin-1 and in vitro addition to vascular and other smooth muscle tissues produce long-lasting pressor effects and contraction, respectively (see, e.g., Bolger et al. (1991) Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 69: 406-413). In isolated vascular strips, for example, endothelin-1 is a potent (EC.sub.50 =4.times.10.sup.-10 M), slow acting, but persistent, contractile agent. A single dose in vivo elevates blood pressure in about twenty to thirty minutes. Endothelin-induced vasoconstriction is not affected by antagonists to known neurotransmitters or hormonal factors, but is abolished by calcium channel antagonists. The effect of calcium channel antagonists, however, is most likely the result of inhibition of calcium influx, since calcium influx appears to be required for the long-lasting contractile response to endothelin.
Endothelin also mediates renin release, stimulates ANP release and induces a positive inotropic action in guinea pig atria. In the lung, endothelin-1 acts as a potent bronchoconstrictor (Maggi et al. (1989) Eur. J. Pharmacol. 160: 179-182). Endothelin increases renal vascular resistance, decreases renal blood flow, and decreases glomerular filtrate rate. It is a potent mitogen for glomerular mesangial cells and invokes the phosphoinoside cascade in such cells (Simonson et al. (1990) J. Clin. Invest. 85: 790-797). Release of endothelins from cultured endothelial cells is modulated by a variety of chemical and physical stimuli and appears to be regulated at the level of transcription and/or translation. Expression of the gene encoding endothelin-1 is increased by chemical stimuli, including adrenaline, thrombin and Ca.sup.2+ ionophore. The production and release of endothelin from the endothelium is stimulated by angiotensin II, vasopressin, endotoxin, cyclosporine and other factors (see, Brooks et al. (1991) Eur. J. Pharm. 194:115-117), and is inhibited by nitric oxide. Endothelial cells appear to secrete short-lived endothelium-derived relaxing factors (EDRF), including nitric oxide or a related substance (Palmer et al. (1987) Nature 327: 524-526), when stimulated by vasoactive agents, such as acetylcholine and bradykinin. Endothelin-induced vasoconstriction is also attenuated by atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP).
There are specific high affinity binding sites (dissociation constants in the range of 2-6.times.10.sup.-10 M) for the endothelins in the vascular system and in other tissues, including the intestine, heart, lungs, kidneys, spleen, adrenal glands and brain. Binding is not inhibited by catecholamines, vasoactive peptides, neurotoxins or calcium channel antagonists. Endothelin binds and interacts with receptor sites that are distinct from other autonomic receptors and voltage dependent calcium channels. Competitive binding studies indicate that there are multiple classes of receptors with different affinities for the endothelin isopeptides. The sarafotoxins, a group of peptide toxins from the venom of the snake Atractaspis eingadensis that cause severe coronary vasospasm in snake bite victims, have structural and functional homology to endothelin-1 and bind competitively to the same cardiac membrane receptors (Kloog et al. (1989) Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 10: 212-214).
Two distinct endothelin receptors, designated ET.sub.A and ET.sub.B, have been identified and DNA clones encoding each receptor have been isolated (Arai et al. (1990) Nature 348: 730-732; Sakurai et al. (1990) Nature 348: 732-735). Based on the amino acid sequences of the proteins encoded by the cloned DNA, it appears that each receptor contains seven membrane spanning domains and exhibits structural similarity to G-protein-coupled membrane proteins. Messenger RNA encoding both receptors has been detected in a variety of tissues, including heart, lung, kidney and brain. The distribution of receptor subtypes is tissue specific (Martin et al. (1989) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 162: 130-137). ET.sub.A receptors appear to be selective for endothelin-1 and are predominant in cardiovascular tissues. ET.sub.B receptors are predominant in noncardiovascular tissues, including the central nervous system and kidney, and interact with the three endothelin isopeptides (Sakurai et al. (1990) Nature 348: 732-734). In addition, ET.sub.A receptors occur on vascular smooth muscle, are linked to vasoconstriction and have been associated with cardiovascular, renal and central nervous system diseases; whereas ET.sub.B receptors are located on the vascular endothelium, linked to vasodilation (Takayanagi et al. (1991) FEBS Lttrs. 282: 103-106) and have been associated with bronchoconstrictive disorders.
By virtue of the distribution of receptor types and the differential affinity of each isopeptide for each receptor type, the activity of the endothelin isopeptides varies in different tissues. For example, endothelin-1 inhibits .sup.125 I-labelled endothelin-1 binding in cardiovascular tissues forty to seven hundred times more potently than endothelin-3. .sup.125 I-labelled endothelin-1 binding in non-cardiovascular tissues, such as kidney, adrenal gland, and cerebellum, is inhibited to the same extent by endothelin-1 and endothelin-3, which indicates that ET.sub.A receptors predominate in cardiovascular tissues and ET.sub.B receptors predominate in non-cardiovascular tissues.
Endothelin plasma levels are elevated in certain disease states (see, e.g., International PCT Application WO 94/27979, and U.S. Pat. No. 5,382,569, which disclosures are herein incorporated in their entirety by reference). Endothelin-1 plasma levels in healthy individuals, as measured by radioimmunoassay (RIA), are about 0.26-5 pg/ml. Blood levels of endothelin-1 and its precursor, big endothelin, are elevated in shock, myocardial infarction, vasospastic angina, kidney failure and a variety of connective tissue disorders. In patients undergoing hemodialysis or kidney transplantation or suffering from cardiogenic shock, myocardial infarction or pulmonary hypertension levels as high as 35 pg/ml have been observed (see, Stewart et al. (1991) Annals Internal Med. 114: 464-469). Because endothelin is likely to be a local, rather than a systemic, regulating factor, it is probable that the levels of endothelin at the endothelium/smooth muscle interface are much higher than circulating levels.
Elevated levels of endothelin have also been measured in patients suffering from ischemic heart disease (Yasuda et al. (1990) Amer. Heart J. 119:801-806, Ray et al. (1992) Br. Heart J. 67:383-386). Circulating and tissue endothelin immunoreactivity is increased more than twofold in patients with advanced atherosclerosis (Lerman et al. (1991) New Engl. J. Med. 325:997-1001). Increased endothelin immunoreactivity has also been associated with Buerger's disease (Kanno et al. (1990) J. Amer. Med. Assoc. 264:2868) and Raynaud's phenomenon (Zamora et al. (1990) Lancet 336 1144-1147). Increased circulating endothelin levels were observed in patients who underwent percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) (Tahara et al. (1991) Metab. Clin. Exp. 40:1235-1237; Sanjay et al. (1991) Circulation 84(Suppl. 4):726), and in individuals with pulmonary hypertension (Miyauchi et al. (1992) Jpn. J. Pharmacol.58:279P; Stewart et al. (1991) Ann.Internal Medicine 114:464-469). Thus, there is clinical human data supporting the correlation between increased endothelin levels and numerous disease states.
Endothelin agonists and antagonists
Because endothelin is associated with certain disease states and is implicated in numerous physiological effects, compounds that can interfere with endothelin-associated activities, such as endothelin-receptor interaction and vasoconstrictor activity, are of interest. Compounds that exhibit endothelin antagonistic activity have been identified. For example, a fermentation product of Streptomyces misakiensis, designated BE-18257B, has been identified as an ET.sub.A receptor antagonist. BE-18257B is a cyclic pentapeptide, cyclo(D-Glu-L-Ala-allo-D-Ile-L-Leu-D-Trp), which inhibits .sup.125 I-labelled endothelin-1 binding in cardiovascular tissues in a concentration-dependent manner (IC.sub.50 1.4 .mu.M in aortic smooth muscle, 0.8 .mu.M in ventricle membranes and 0.5 .mu.M in cultured aortic smooth muscle cells), but fails to inhibit binding to receptors in tissues in which ET.sub.B receptors predominate at concentrations up to 100 .mu.M. Cyclic penta-peptides related to BE-18257B, such as cyclo(D-Asp-Pro-D-Val-Leu-D-Trp) (BQ-123), have been synthesized and shown to exhibit activity as ET.sub.A receptor antagonists (see, U.S. Pat. No. 5,114,918 to Ishikawa et al.; see, also, EP A1 0 436 189 to BANYU PHARMACEUTICAL CO., LTD (Oct. 7, 1991)). Studies that measure the inhibition by these cyclic peptides of endothelin-1 binding to endothelin-specific receptors indicate that these cyclic peptides bind preferentially to ET.sub.A receptors. Other peptidic and non-peptidic ET.sub.A antagonists have been identified (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,352,800, 5,334,598, 5,352,659, 5,248,807, 5,240,910, 5,198,548, 5,187,195, 5,082,838). These include other cyclic peptides, acyltripeptides, hexapeptide analogs, certain antraquinone derivatives, indanecarboxylic acids, certain N-pyrimidylbenzenesulfonamides, certain benzenesulfonamides, and certain naphthalenesulfonamides (see, e.g., Nakajima et al. (1991) J. Antibiot. 44:1348-1356; Miyata et al. (1992) J. Antibiot. 45:74-8; Ishikawa et al. (1992) J.Med. Chem. 35:2139-2142; U.S. Pat. No. 5,114,918 to Ishikawa et al.; EP A1 0 569 193; EP A1 0 558 258; EP A1 0 436 189 to BANYU PHARMACEUTICAL CO., LTD (Oct. 7, 1991); Canadian Patent Application 2,067,288; Canadian Patent Application 2,071,193; U.S. Pat. No. 5,208,243; U.S. Pat. No. 5,270,313; Cody et al. (1993) Med. Chem. Res. 3:154-162; Miyata et al. (1992) J. Antibiot 45:1041-1046; Miyata et al. (1992) J. Antibiot 45:1029-1040, Fujimoto et al. (1992) FEBS Lett. 305:41-44; Oshashi et al. (1002) J. Antibiot 45:1684-1685; EP A1 0 496 452; Clozel et al. (1993) Nature 365:759-761; International Patent Application WO093/08799; Nishikibe et al. (1993) Life Sci. 52:717-724; and Benigni et al. (1993) Kidney Int. 44:440-444, U.S. Pat. No. 5,464,853 and others). In general, the identified compounds have activities in in vitro assays as ET.sub.A antagonists at concentrations on the order of about 50 .mu.M-100 .mu.M or less. A number of such compounds have also been shown to possess activity in in vivo animal models. Very few, if any, selective ET.sub.B antagonists have been described.
Certain phosphonic acid derivatives and related compounds have been identified that have activity as ECE inhibitors (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,481,030, 5,476,847, 5,438,046, 5,380,921 and 5,330,978); there does not appear to be any evidence that any of these compounds inhibit the interaction of an endothelin peptide with an endothelin receptor.
Endothelin agonists and antagonists as therapeutic agents
It has been recognized that compounds that exhibit activity at IC.sub.50 or EC.sub.50 concentrations on the order of 10.sup.-4 M or lower in standard in vitro assays that assess endothelin antagonist or agonist activity have pharmacological utility (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,352,800, 5,334,598, 5,352,659, 5,248,807, 5,240,910, 5,198,548, 5,187,195, 5,082,838 and 5,464,853). By virtue of this activity, such compounds are considered to be useful for the treatment of hypertension such as peripheral circulatory failure, heart disease such as angina pectoris, cardiomyopathy, arteriosclerosis, myocardial infarction, pulmonary hypertension, vasospasm, vascular restenosis, Raynaud's disease, cerebral stroke such as cerebral arterial spasm, cerebral ischemia, late phase cerebral spasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage, asthma, bronchoconstriction, renal failure, particularly post-ischemic renal failure, cyclosporine nephrotoxicity such as acute renal failure, colitis, as well as other inflammatory diseases, endotoxic shock caused by or associated with endothelin, and other diseases in which endothelin has been implicated.
Thus, in view of the numerous physiological effects of endothelin and its association with certain diseases, endothelin is believed to play a critical role in these pathophysiological conditions (see, e.g., Saito et al. (1990) Hypertension 15: 734-738; Tomita et al. (1989) N. Engl. J. Med. 321: 1127; Kurihara et al. (1989) J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 13(Suppl. 5): S13-S17; Doherty (1992) J. Med. Chem. 35: 1493-1508; Morel et al. (1989) Eur. J. Pharmacol. 167: 427-428). More detailed knowledge of the function and structure of the endothelin peptide family should provide insight into the progression and treatment of such conditions.
To aid in gaining further understanding of and to develop treatments for endothelin-mediated or related disorders, there is a need to identify compounds that modulate or alter endothelin activity. Identification of compounds that modulate endothelin activity, such as compounds that act as specific antagonists or agonists, may not only aid in elucidating the function of endothelin, but may yield therapeutically useful compounds. In particular, compounds that specifically interfere with the interaction of endothelin peptides with ET.sub.A, ET.sub.B or other receptors should be useful in identifying essential characteristics of endothelin peptides, should aid in the design of therapeutic agents, and may be useful as disease specific therapeutic agents.
Therefore, it is an object herein to provide compounds that have the ability to modulate the biological activity of one or more of the endothelin isopeptides. It is another object to provide compounds that have use as endothelin antagonists. It is also an object to use compounds that specifically interact with or inhibit the interaction of endothelin peptides with endothelin receptors as therapeutic agents for the treatment of endothelin-mediated diseases and disorders and/or as reagents for the identification of endothelin receptor subtypes and/or for the elucidation of the physiological and pathophysiological roles of endothelin.